Introduction
Regional trade organizations are multilateral arrangements focused around a geographical area. The goal of a regional trade organization is the liberalization of international trade between the member nations. Regional trade agreements generally take on one of four forms: free trade areas, customs unions, common markets and economic unions. Free trade areas occur when member countries eliminate tariffs and trade barriers, but maintain individual foreign trade policies. In customs unions, member countries eliminate tariffs and create a common external trade regime. With a common market, regional integration includes trade as well as free movement of all aspects of production. An economic union represents the coordination of all the economic policies of the member countries.
This section of the guide presents resources relating to the rise and development of regional trade organizations generally. Following that are discussions and resources for a selection of regional trade organizations. There are numerous other regional trade organizations in all areas of the world and it is possible to find information about them in some of the resources listed in the general information section.
Introductory Resources
To see more background and reference works available at Diamond Law Library, including older editions, please try these searches on Pegasus:
You can also find a list of selected publications below.
Trade and the Developing World in the 21st Century by Call Number: HF1379 .C37 2001Publication Date: 2001The developing World contains 80 percent of the globe's population, but accounts for less than 25 percent of its trade. The tariffs imposed by rich nations on manufactured products from developing countries are four times higher than the duties on goods from other industrialized nations. This book examines the trade problems the developing nations face in the new Millennium. Professor Carl's detailed analysis of the effects of WTO rules-as well as rules of no less than 37 other regional trade agreements-on the economic infrastructures of developing nations is as telling and incisive as it is eloquent and insightful. It covers a wide spectrum of essential trade issues, including tariffs, quotas, subsidies, dumping, rules of origin, standards, safeguards, textiles, agriculture, and information technology. Professor Carl clearly shows why, in all of these areas, developing nations fail to benefit from multilateral trade agreements as currently constituted. This volume is an invaluable key to understanding the deepest and most serious flaws in the "New World Order," and an essential resource for practitioners, policymakers, business people, and scholars committed to an international trade regime that is truly "free." Published under the Transnational Publishers imprint.
New Dimensions in Regional Integration (e-book) by Publication Date: 1993Interest in regional integration has recently revived in both developed and developing countries. The US has responded to the lack of progress in the Uruguay Round of the GATT by pursuing bilateral trade negotiations, while developing countries have been prompted to re-evaluate the potential benefits of regional integration. The tendency for the world trading system to divide into three blocs - the European Community, the Americas and East Asia - is providing their members with guaranteed access to large markets; however, poor non-member countries will suffer from the loss of access and the risk of trade wars is increased. In this book leading international experts assess the renewed attractiveness of regional integration to individual countries, the types of integration that are suitable to various circumstances, the conditions necessary to their success, and the relationship of regionalism to multilateral free trade.
Also available in print, Call Number HF1418.5 .N48 1993
Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements (e-book) by Publication Date: 2015The stalling of the Doha Development Round trade negotiations has resulted in bilateral and regional free trade agreements becoming an important alternative. These agreements have proliferated in recent years, and now all of the major trading countries are engaging in serious bilateral trade negotiations with multiple trading partners. This second edition provides a new collection of case studies illustrating the latest trends and innovations in bilateral and regional trade agreements (BRTAs). The selected BRTAs represent a good sampling of regional variation and cover the most important substantive issues. Authored by leading scholars and practitioners, each case study offers comprehensive analysis of the featured BRTA, and the format allows for quick comparisons.
Also available in print, Call Number K4600 .B483 2015
Core Labour Standards and International Trade (e-book) by Publication Date: 2014This book examines the labour standards provisions in a number of Regional and Bilateral Trade Agreements, and assesses the potential of using the relevant clauses in these trade agreements as a benchmark for a multilateral approach. Based on the lessons learned from the Regional model, the book proposes a Global Labour and Trade Framework Agreement (GLTFA) combined with a joint ILO/WTO enforcement mechanism to resolve the contentious issue of the link between the CLS and international trade. The history of the linkage between the Core Labour Standards (CLS) and international trade dates back roughly 150 years, and has recently become one of the most vexing issues facing policy-makers. At the heart of the debate is the question whether or not trade sanctions should be imposed on countries that do not respect the CLS as embodied in multilateral conventions administered by the International Labour Organization (ILO). Concretely, this would entail inserting a social clause in the World Trade Organization (WTO) rules, and would trigger the imposition of sanctions on those countries that do not adhere to the CLS.
Regional Trade Agreements by Call Number: K4600 .G368 2009Publication Date: 2009The proliferation of regional trade agreements (RTAs) is one of the most economically significant, politically important and, for some, troubling developments within the world trading system since the WTO Agreements entered into force in 1995. The WTO Secretariat has predicted that by 2010 nearly 400 such preferential trade agreements could be in force, with many WTO Member States being to party to multiple RTAs. This movement toward more regionalism may accelerate if the Doha Development Round of WTO negotiations remains stalemated, but will likely continue regardless of whether Doha is ultimately concluded. This volume is designed to introduce the reader to the world of RTAs, for general understanding of the place of RTAs in the global trading system, appreciation of the context and legal content of particular RTAs, and as a basis for further study and analysis. (An extensive bibliography and list of Internet links are included.) Part I discusses the economic, policy and developmental issues arising from regionalism, and then considers the WTO legal regime as it affects and is affected by RTAs. The focus there is on free trade agreements (FTAs) and customs unions (CUs) regulated by Article XXIV of GATT 1994 or Article V of the General Agreement on Trade in Services, and on efforts within the WTO regime to minimize the negative effects of such departures from the core GATT/WTO principle of non-discrimination (most-favored nation treatment). Part II discusses the multiple FTAs concluded by the United States with various trading partners since 1985, beginning with an analysis of the political, legal and policy considerations that affect the United States' ability to conclude international trade agreements. Extensive coverage is given to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and to the Central American Dominican Republic United States FTA (CAFTA-DR). NAFTA is important because it represents by far the largest trade volume generated under any U.S. FTA, and because it has become the model for most subsequent U.S. FTAs, as well as many concluded by other nations. CAFTA-DR embodies legal changes reflecting ten years experience under NAFTA. It also exemplifies the increasing use of FTAs by the United States as a mechanism for encouraging economic development, democratic institutions and the rule of law. Analysis at varying levels of detail is provided for all other U.S. FTAs, including those with Colombia, Panama and Korea, for which Congressional approval is pending, and for the unique bilateral trade agreement with Vietnam. Part III analyzes five other important RTAs: The European Union (EU), Central American Common Market, MERCOSUR, South African Customs Union, and ASEAN FTA. These diverse accords each play an important role in the intra-regional political and economic relations of the parties, and exemplify a broad range of ambitious approaches to expanding intra-regional trade and commerce on four continents. The EU is likely the most successful RTA in history, and serves as a model for other CUs, including those discussed in Part III. Like globalization, the RTA phenomenon is here to stay. WTO member government officials, international practitioners and law students aspiring to careers in international trade law must learn to deal effectively with the challenges and opportunities presented by such agreements.
Regional Trade Agreements and the Multilateral Trading System (e-book) by Publication Date: 2016This volume contains a collection of studies examining trade-related issues negotiated in regional trade agreements (RTAs) and how RTAs are related to the WTO's rules. While previous work has focused on subsets of RTAs, these studies are based on what is probably the largest dataset used to date, and highlight key issues that have been negotiated in all RTAs notified to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). New rules within RTAs are compared to rules agreed upon by WTO members. The extent of their divergences and the potential implications for parties to RTAs, as well as for WTO members that are not parties to RTAs, are examined. This volume makes an important contribution to the current debate on the role of the WTO in regulating international trade and how WTO rules relate to new rules being developed by RTAs.
United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement
Trilateral trade between Canada, Mexico and the United States used to be governed by the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), until it was superseded by United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement ("USMCA"). Like its predecessor, the USMCA bsought to support mutually beneficial trade leading to freer, fairer markets, and to robust economic growth in the region.
To see more background and reference works available at Diamond Law Library, please try these searches on Pegasus:
You can find a selected list of publications below.
- The SecretariatThis site contains information on the dispute settlement proceedings, legal texts and reports with regards to USMCA.
The USMCA, NAFTA Re-Negotiated and Its Business Implications in a Nutshell by Call Number: KDZ944 .F653 2020Publication Date: 2020No lawyer or business operating in North America can escape the significance of NAFTA and its successor, the USMCA agreement of 2018. This Nutshell introduces students, lawyers, government officials and business persons to the law and economics of North American free trade. It first examines the origins, operation and impact of NAFTA 1994. The changes made by the USMCA agreement of 2018, and their implications for business, are explored in detail. In preparing this Nutshell, we have attempted to address the interests not only of North Americans, but also persons located outside the region who are concerned about the externalities of North American free trade, intellectual property and foreign investment law.- The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) (e-book) by Publication Date: 2018-This report provides access to all versions of the USMCA published since 2018.
NAFTA 2.0 : from the First NAFTA to the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (e-book) by Publication Date: 2022The renegotiation and possible termination of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) sparked a lot of interest and concern in light of the United States' declared objective to "rebalance the benefits" of the agreement. This book provides an overview of the changes brought to the NAFTA by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) or NAFTA 2.0.
North American Free Trade Agreement
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trade agreement designed to reduce the boundaries for goods and services across the borders of Canada, the United States and Mexico. While it did not establish a common market in the full sense of the term, NAFTA developed a free trade zone throughout North America. Negotiations for NAFTA began in July of 1991 and the final draft was completed by the summer of 1992. The leaders of the United States, Canada and Mexico signed NAFTA on December 17, 1992. In Mexico, NAFTA became law as an international treaty. In both Canada and the United States, domestic legislation was required in order to implement the treaty. The NAFTA Implementation Act [P.L. 103-182, 107 Stat 2057] passed Congress in December 1993 and was codified primarily into Title 19 of the United States Code [19 U.S.C. 3301 et seq.]. NAFTA officially entered into force on January 1, 1994. In addition to the main treaty, NAFTA included two other agreements relating to environmental and labor issues: the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation.
The U.S.-Canada Free-Trade Agreement (FTA or CFTA) was a precursor to NAFTA. It was a bilateral trade agreement between the United States and Canada designed to open up the borders between the two countries. The development of the FTA acted as motivation for the development and eventual implementation of NAFTA. FTA went into effect on January 1, 1989, but was suspended following the signing of NAFTA. Were NAFTA to fail or either the U.S. or Canada to withdraw, the FTA would be reinstated.
There are a number of places where one can find the text of the NAFTA agreements, as well as its origins and negotiations. The Diamond Library contains numerous resources relating to NAFTA. Presented below are a selection of the library's resources which provide a good entry point for research in this area.
The NAFTA was superseded by United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement ("USMCA"), which took effect on July 1, 2020.
NAFTA Dispute Resolution
Dispute resolution under NAFTA was governed by Chapter 19 - Review and Dispute Settlement in Antidumping and Countervailing Duty Matters and by Chapter 20 - Institutional Arrangements and Dispute Settlement Procedures. Under Article 1904, judicial review of disputes is replaced with binational panel review. Article 2002 established the Secretariat which has the authority to administer the trade disputes mechanisms specified under the NAFTA to resolve conflicts in timely and impartial manner.
NAFTA Founding Documents
- North American Free Trade Agreements (NAFTA) : Hearings before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 103d Cong., 1st Sess (e-resource)Publication Date: 1994This loose-leaf contains the full-text of all the NAFTA agreements, as well as other documents relating to NAFTA, such as dispute settlement panel decisions and commentaries. This is a multi-volume set with four volumes for the treaties and currently one or two volumes for commentary and decisions.
- NAFTA : final text, summary, legislative history & Implementation directory by Call Number: JX5525 H691 1994Publication Date: 1994The resource contains the full text of NAFTA. It also provides a summary of the intent and functions of the trade agreement. A legislative history of Congress' action in passing the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act is presented in the first section of the book. The legislative history begins with a summary of the passage of the Act and then lists the relevant Congressional hearings, debates and reports, as well as presidential remarks relating to NAFTA. The NAFTA summary section quickly explains the terms of the agreement in sequential order.
NAFTA Resources
To see more background and reference works available at Diamond Law Library, including older editions, please try these searches on Pegasus:
You can find a selected list of publications below.
- NAFTA Free Trade and Foreign Investment in the Americas (e-book) by Publication Date: 2014This Nutshell provides a quick reference for students and practitioners on the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), Mercado Comun del Sur (MERCOSUR), and numerous other free trade agreements in the Americas. No lawyer or business operating in the Americas can escape their significance. They represent the future, a blending of national legal and business cultures and traditions. This book addresses the interests not only of North, South and Central Americans, but also persons located outside the region who worry about the externalities of free trade in the Americas. NAFTA treaties are appended.
Also available in print, Call Number KDZ944 .F653 2014 - Navigating NAFTA by Call Number: JX5525 Ap53 1994Publication Date: 1994Written in clear, understandable language, this book serves as an introduction to NAFTA. It begins with an overview of the history and proposes of the trade agreement. There are chapters discussing the implementation process, each country's obligations and how NAFTA interacts with other international agreements. Specific subject areas are analyzed in conjunction with the NAFTA obligations and the dispute resolution policies are explained. The book ends with chapters dealing with frequently raised concerns about NAFTA. The book has a detailed table of contents and table of cases referenced and would serve as a good starting point for research into NAFTA.
- Assessing NAFTA by Call Number: JX5525 As74 1993Publication Date: 1993Completed during NAFTA negotiations (prior to the implementation of the agreement), this book provides an interesting historical analysis of what were considered to be issues, problems and concerns relating to NAFTA. This is a collection of studies by different authors which explore the topic in different contexts. There are chapters relating to how NAFTA would impact each of the countries involved, as well as a chapter on NAFTA's impact in general. Specific affected trade areas are discussed, such as the automotive industry and agriculture. There are also chapters discussing the dispute resolution issues and environmental concerns. Since this material is from before NAFTA's enactment, it is not current and should only be considered within a historical, analytical context.
- NAFTA on WestlawThe NAFTA database provides access to the full text of the North American Free Trade Agreement. It also had associated summaries, news releases, and text describing NAFTA. Coverage begins with August 1992 when the final agreement was reached. The NAFTA-LH database contains a comprehensive legislative history of the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act (P.L. 103-182). Full text of decisions issued by the North American Free Trade Agreement Binational Panel (formerly the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement Binational Panel) dating from 1989 are presented in the NAFTA-BIP database. Information about NAFTA is also presented in other databases, such as International Business Transactions (INTBUSTRAN). A useful aspect of WESTLAW is the scan function within the Directory that allows one to find all the databases where information on NAFTA will be found.
Mercado Común del Cono Sur
The Mercado Comun del Cono Sur (MERCOSUR) was established by the Treaty of Asuncion [30 I.L.M.1041] in March 1991. The final Protocol of Ouro Preto was signed in December 1994 and MERCOSUR went into effect on January 1, 1995. It is a customs union between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Other South American countries have become associate members in MERCOSUR (Chile and Bolivia in 1996 and Peru in 2003) and there are negotiations proceeding with Mexico, Venezuela and Columbia for further expansion. The purpose of MERCOSUR is to create a common market with the elimination of trade barriers between the member countries. The Protocol of Ouro Preto established the administrative structure for MERCOSUR. The Protocol of Brasilia detailed the dispute settlement procedure and the Protocol of Olivos created the Permanent Appellate Tribunal.
It is important to note that the majority of the documentation for MERCOSUR is created in Spanish and Portuguese and has not been translated into English.
To see more background and reference works available at Diamond Law Library, including older editions, please try these searches on Pegasus:
You can find a selected list of resources below.
- Código del MERCOSUR : tratado, protocolos, acuerdos, declaraciones, decisiones, resoluciones, directivas, recomendaciones / Roberto Dromi by Call Number: JX1986 C648 1996ISBN: 9875070297Publication Date: 1996-1997This is an eight volume set that contains the treaties, protocols, agreements and decisions from MERCOSUR.
- MERCOSUR webpageThis website provides information relating to the history and formation of MERCOSUR. Available in Spanish and Portuguese.
- European Commission - MERCOSUR Document ArchiveThis website provides access to EU-MERCOSUR document including English translations of European Commission policy documents, reports, and proposals, among others.
- Globalex : A Guide to MERCOSUR Legal Research – Sources and DocumentsA research guide to doing legal research on MERCOSUR. Provides an overview of the topic and includes links to free resources.
Common Market for Eastern & Southern Africa
Created in December 1994, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) operates with the goal of reducing tariffs and forming a trading bloc capable of overcoming the obstacles the countries would face individually. The COMESA Treaty established the administrative structure and functions of the organization. Twenty-one countries have become members of COMESA by signing on o the COMESA Treaty, which makes it the largest regional trade organization in Africa. In October 2000, the first Free Trade Area in Africa was developed between nine of the COMESA members which included the elimination of non-tariff barriers and the free movement of goods and services. The rest of the COMESA members have the ability to join the Free Trade Area after they successfully eliminate the tariffs and trade barriers.
The COMESA webpage has a great deal more information about the structure, purposes and activities of the organization.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN) is a treaty organization established in 1967. It currently has ten members. The original five were Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand with Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), and Vietnam joining over the years. The goals of ASEAN are to foster regional economic growth and promote regional stability and development. As an advocate of the less developed nations of Southeast Asia, ASEAN has become a key player in the international trade negotiations. The ASEAN Free Trade Area was initiated in January 1992 with the intent of reducing comprehensive tariff reduction in the region.
The ASEAN webpage has a great deal more information about the structure, purposes and activities of the organization. It also provides information about the ASEAN Treaties.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was established in 1989 with the purpose of eliminating trade and investment barriers in the Asia-Pacific region. There are currently 21 member nations. For a complete list see the APEC webpage. Since there is no treaty underlying the organization, all the initiatives proceed on a voluntary basis. There is no formal institutional structure and no dispute settlement process. Regular meetings between the leaders of the member countries have led the way toward the fulfillment of the goals of APEC.
The APEC webpage has a great deal more information about the purposes and activities of the organization.